📊 Chapter 3A: Analysing Performance in Sport

Structures, strategies, compositional elements, analysis tools, roles and aesthetic sport – fully explained

1. Structures & Strategies

Structure A structure refers to the set-up of a physical activity, the format a competition follows, or how a team might be set up — i.e. formations. It answers the question: "How are we going to set up?"

💡 Analogy Think of a structure like the blueprint of a house — it shows where all the rooms (players) are placed before anyone moves in. A 4-3-3 in soccer = 4 defenders, 3 midfielders, 3 forwards. The formation is set before kick-off.

Strategy (Tactics) Strategies are tactics or game plans employed by a team or individual to try to maximise their chance of success. They are usually prearranged and rehearsed. It answers the question: "How are we going to play?"

💡 Analogy If structure is the blueprint, strategy is the plan of HOW you'll live in the house — e.g. "We'll use the back door (counter-attack) when they press us high." Strategies respond to the opposition.

🧠 Memory Trick Structure = Set-up / Formation ("Where do we stand?")
Strategy = Scheme / Tactics ("How do we play?")

Factors Considered When Choosing a Strategy

Capabilities of each player on your own team (strengths & weaknesses)
Capabilities of the opposition (their strengths & weaknesses)
Conditions (weather, pitch surface)
Where the game is taking place (home or away)
Importance of the game

Examples of Strategy in Invasions Games

High Press

Force the opposition to play mistakes in their own half by pressuring them as soon as they get the ball.

Beat the Press

Use short, quick passes or long diagonal balls to escape an opposition press.

Counter-Attack

Soak up pressure defensively then quickly transition to attack when possession is won.

Defending Strategies

E.g. deep block, man-marking, zonal marking — used to limit the opposition's scoring opportunities.

Examiners love asking you to outline the structure AND strategy used in your chosen sport. Be ready with specific examples — name the formation AND the tactical plan.

2. Compositional Elements

Composition Arranging a series of planned movements or skills in a specifically designed manner. Compositional elements are most important in aesthetic sports such as dance and gymnastics.

🧠 Memory Trick – The 4 Elements of Composition S-D-R-R = Space · Dynamics · Rhythm · Relationships
Think: "Some Dancers Really Rock!"

🌍 Space

Performers need to be aware of the space available to them and have a plan on how best to use it during a performance. Includes performing at different levels (high, medium, low).

⚡ Dynamics

Used in contrast to slow movements. Explosive, strong movements requiring lots of energy. High rewards — looks impressive to those watching.

🎵 Rhythm

The way in which skills or movement patterns are executed. Involves full control, flow and coordination. Movements link together smoothly and are aesthetically pleasing.

🤝 Relationships

Performers must think about their relationship with space, objects (props), other performers and the audience. Trust and bonding are important.

💡 Analogy Think of a movie scene. Space = where the actors are positioned on set. Dynamics = the action sequences. Rhythm = how smoothly scenes flow together. Relationships = the chemistry between the cast.

You could be asked: "Explain two compositional elements and their importance in a named aesthetic activity." Pick two from SDRR and link to dance or gymnastics with specific examples.

3. Analysis of Performance & Analysis Tools

Analysis allows us to evaluate aspects of performance in great detail. It helps coaches and athletes make informed decisions about how to structure and strategise.

Video Analysis A technology-based tool used to assess a team's application of structures and strategies. Allows coaches to see how effectively tactics were carried out. Also used to analyse the formations and tactics used by opponents — enabling the team to plan and prepare specifically for the opposition.

Methods of Analysis

📹 Video Analysis

Review footage of your own performance and the opposition. Tools like Hudl, Veo, Sportscode are commonly used.

📡 GPS Trackers

Worn by players to track distance covered, speed, work rate and positioning during matches and training.

📋 Statistical Sheets

Record data such as possession %, tackles, shots on target, pass completion rates.

💬 Discussion

Conversations with coaches and teammates to reflect on performance and identify key areas for improvement.

🪞 Self-Reflection

Athletes evaluate their own execution of tactics and strategies, assessing what worked and what didn't.

Analysis of Opponents

Coaches and athletes will often conduct video analysis of an opposition team to identify their strengths and weaknesses. This enables a team to put a plan in place to exploit a weakness in the opposition (structure, strategy or individual player).

📌 Why Analyse? Analysis allows you to make informed decisions about how you set up and how you play. Without analysis, a team is essentially going into a match blind.

4. The RAR Method – Modifying Structures & Strategies

During a game, things don't always go to plan. Coaches must be ready to modify their structures and strategies mid-performance. The RAR method is a framework for doing this.

RAR Method A systematic approach to modifying structures and strategies during performance. Stands for: Recognise → Anticipate → React. If changes aren't working, the method is repeated.

R – Recognise

Constantly consider what is working well and what might need changing. Recognise strengths and weaknesses as they emerge during play.

A – Anticipate

Think ahead — what might happen if everything stays the same? What might happen if changes are made? Weigh up options.

R – React

After recognising issues and anticipating outcomes, REACT and take action — by changing the structure, strategy or personnel involved.

💡 Analogy Think of a GPS app rerouting when there's traffic. It Recognises the jam, Anticipates how long it'll take if you stay on that road, then Reacts by directing you a new way. If the new route is also jammed — it repeats the process!

🧠 Memory Trick RAR = like a lion's roar! Recognise → Anticipate → React 🦁
If it doesn't work — ROAR again (repeat the process)

5. Demands Placed on Players, Coaches & Officials

There are physical, personal and technical demands placed on all individuals involved in sport. These demands differ depending on the role and the activity.

Demand Type	Player	Coach	Official
Physical	Must meet the health and performance-related fitness levels necessary for their sport. Must remain injury free and healthy.	Must remain healthy and in good enough shape to attend all sessions and matches to guide and support performers.	Must meet the performance-related fitness levels necessary to carry out their specific officiating role.
Personal	Huge time commitments — organised practices, matches, extra time to perfect skills, travel, team bonding. May lead to missing social events and holidays.	Often voluntary — gives up free time after work/weekends. Analysis and planning take time over and above training sessions and matches.	Often voluntary — must give up free time. Lack of qualified officials means they must often travel great distances. Must avoid bias.
Technical	Specific skillset required for specific positions (e.g. goalkeeping, free-taking). Different techniques required for each activity.	Choosing correct structures and strategies is vital. Effective coaching strategies, decision making and planning are all important.	Excellent knowledge of the rules of the game. Must know how to enforce rules effectively. Must communicate well with players and coaches.

Exam question: "Outline the demands placed on players, coaches and officials in your chosen sport — include physical, personal and technical demands." Prepare at least two specific points per cell above for your sport.

6. Playing & Non-Playing Roles

Performers may be asked to adopt specific playing roles during performance. The coach assigns these based on the player's physical and technical capacity — to improve the team's chances of success.

Non-Playing Roles Roles carried out to optimise the performance of those taking part, without directly competing. These include coaches, officials, team managers, physiotherapists, sports psychologists, sports scientists, nutritionists, video analysts, team captains, kit managers and medical staff.

🔍 Examples of Playing Roles In soccer: goalkeeper, sweeper, playmaker, pressing midfielder, target striker.
In GAA: sweeper, kickout taker, freetaker, middle third operator.

💡 Analogy Think of a movie production. The actors are like players — they're on screen. The director is like the coach. The camera crew, sound engineers, and editors are all non-playing roles — none of them appear in the film, but without them there is no film!

7. Aesthetic vs Purposive Sports

Purposive Sports Sports where the outcome of the skill is most important — NOT how it looks. The aesthetic quality of movements is not as important as the outcome. There is no added reward for beautiful technique. Examples: football, rugby, athletics. (May not directly impact results — which often makes them exciting!)

Aesthetic Sports Sports where the artistry of movement and aesthetics are central to performance. The aesthetic/artistic criteria forms the primary part of the scoring system during competition. Athletes are judged on the quality of their movements as well as their execution. Examples: gymnastics, figure skating, synchronised swimming, diving, dance.

🧠 Memory Trick Purposive = has a purpose (score a goal, cross the line — result matters, not looks!)
Aesthetic = like aesthetics = beauty is the point!

Scoring in Aesthetic Sports

Subjective Scoring In aesthetic sports, performance is judged on different categories — which can differ for each sport. Scoring is subjective (based on the judge's opinion/interpretation). Common categories include: Technical Execution and Degree of Difficulty.

🤸 Artistic Gymnastics Scoring – D Score & E Score

D Score (Difficulty Score): Takes the movements/elements performed into consideration, awarding each a score between 0.1 and 0.8. The more difficult the routine, the higher the D score.
E Score (Execution Score): Each athlete starts with 10.0 and has points deducted for any mistakes made during the performance.
The highest combined D + E score wins the event.

Evaluating Aesthetic Performance

Coaches use video analysis tools (e.g. Hudl) to examine the aesthetic and artistic elements.
The aesthetic criteria for each sport helps athletes and coaches determine how to plan, prepare and train for maximum success.
Training plans and feedback must take both technical AND artistic elements into consideration.

Be ready to compare purposive and aesthetic sports with an example from each. Also know how scores are calculated in ONE named aesthetic sport (e.g. gymnastics D+E score).

🧠 Chapter 3A Quick Quiz

🛡️ Chapter 3B: Safe Practice in Sport

Warm-up, injury prevention, SALTAPS, PRICE, concussion, overtraining and organising events

1. Safe Practice in Sport – Introduction

Safe Practice The action of putting procedures in place to ensure the safety of all stakeholders involved in a sporting event or activity.

Key Considerations for Reducing Risk of Injury

👕 Clothing

Appropriate clothing should be worn, including correct footwear and no jewellery.

🏑 Equipment

Suitable equipment must be used and maintained to a safe standard.

🏟️ Facilities

Facilities should be safe and hazard-free. Playing surfaces must be checked.

🔥 Warm Up / Cool Down

All athletes should know how to warm up and cool down properly before and after activity.

2. Warm Up & The RAMP Method

Warm Up A preparatory phase of exercise completed before the main activity to help avoid injury and improve performance. Warming up increases body temperature and blood flow, which circulates more oxygen and nutrients to the muscles. Warm-ups can take from 10–40 minutes. There are 3 common features: pulse-raising activity, stretching/mobility, and sport-specific activities.

Benefits of Warming Up

Increased blood flow and metabolism (converting food into energy)
Increased body temperature
Increased oxygen intake due to gradual increase in heart rate
Increased muscle elasticity; connective tissue resistance decreases
Reduced muscle tension
Reduced muscle soreness and risk of injury
Increased focus and mental readiness for activity
Enables the body to adapt to harsh conditions more easily

Metabolism The process of converting food into energy. A raised metabolism during warm-up means the body is ready to produce energy more efficiently during exercise.

Static vs Dynamic Stretching in Warm-Up

Dynamic Stretching ✅ (Preferred for warm-up)

Active movements taking joints through full range of motion. Mimics sport-specific movements. Used BEFORE activity. Prepares muscles for action.

Static Stretching ⚠️ (Not ideal before activity)

Holding a stretch to near maximal length. Can cause a protective muscle contraction response if done before exercise — may reduce power output. Best saved for AFTER activity when flexibility gains can be made.

The RAMP Warm-Up (3 × 5-minute stages)

🧠 Memory Trick R-A-M-P = Raise → Activate & Mobilise → Potentiate
Think: "We RAMP UP to full intensity!" — the body is like a car engine, you don't rev it to max immediately!

🔴 R – Raise ▶

Raise First phase of the warm-up. Focus is on raising blood flow, muscle temperature, core temperature and muscle elasticity using low-intensity movements. Movements should be multidirectional, involve stopping and starting, and changes of pace.

Examples: light jogging, side-shuffles, skipping, dynamic walking.

🟠 A – Activate & Mobilise ▶

Activate & Mobilise Aim is to activate key muscle groups and mobilise key joints and ranges of motion. Important to identify the key movement patterns involved in the sport. Achieved through dynamic stretches and mobilisation activities.

Examples: mini band routines, squats, lunges, high kicks, T push-ups, sumo shuffles, spinal mobility, balance work, rotation exercises.

🟢 P – Potentiate ▶

Potentiate Gradually increasing the stress on the body using sport-specific exercises in preparation for the upcoming activity. Potentiate means to improve or increase the effectiveness of something.

Examples: small-sided possession games, practising set plays, weighted squats, sprint drills.

💡 Analogy Potentiate = like a rocket launch — you don't go from 0 to full thrust instantly. You gradually increase power until you're ready to blast off at full intensity for your sport!

3. Cool Down

Cool Down The phase after exercise aimed at gradually decreasing the heart rate and relaxing muscles. An effective cool down should restore the body to its original pre-exercise state. It should consist of: 5 minutes of low-intensity exercise (jogging, medium-paced walking) followed by 5–10 minutes of static stretching (hold each stretch for 30 seconds).

Benefits of an Effective Cool Down

Helps dispose of lactic acid — if allowed to build up, it can cause cramping and stiffness
Reduces chances of dizziness or fainting caused by the pooling of venous blood in the limbs
Reduced risk of DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness)
Reduces risk of injury
Provides the performer with an opportunity to gather their emotions and calm themselves

DOMS – Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness The pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after strenuous exercise. Caused by microscopic tears in muscle fibres. A proper cool-down (and static stretching) helps reduce the severity of DOMS.

💡 Analogy Not cooling down after exercise is like driving your car at 100km/h and suddenly switching off the engine — instead of gradually slowing down. The cool down is the process of gently braking to a stop!

4. Sports Injuries – Causes & Types of Force

Injuries can occur when: force is applied too quickly, too much force is placed on the body, or the body isn't ready for an impact or specific stress.

Internal Force (Non-Contact Injuries) When sudden, powerful bodily movements cause a tear or strain in a muscle or tendon — without any external contact. The force comes from within the body itself. Examples: hamstring tear during a sprint, calf strain.

External Force (Contact Injuries) Injuries caused by forces outside the body. There are two types:
(i) Impact from someone/something: The athlete collides with another person or object (post, ground) resulting in cuts, sprains, fractures, dislocations or concussion.
(ii) The environment: Extreme heat can cause dehydration; cold conditions can cause hypothermia.

🧠 Memory Trick Internal = Inside the body causes it (muscle tears itself)
External = Outside force causes it (someone hits you / environment)

5. SALTAPS – Injury Assessment Protocol

SALTAPS A systematic, step-by-step injury assessment protocol used on the field of play to evaluate the severity of an injury before deciding on next steps. In the event of a serious injury, always notify a coach or qualified professional. If medical intervention is needed, call an ambulance immediately.

🧠 Memory Trick S-A-L-T-A-P-S = Stop/See → Ask → Look → Touch → Active Movement → Passive Movement → Strength Test
"Some Athletes Love Tasting All Performance Stats!"

Letter	Step	What you do
S	Stop / See	See the injury occur. Assess the situation and stop play to assess the player.
A	Ask	Ask for consent — what happened? Get a detailed history. Did anyone see it? Evaluate for pain using facial expression and posture. Can they talk clearly?
L	Look	Look at the limb and appearance of the injury site. Check for bleeding, discolouration, bruising, swelling, bone/joint deformity, muscle spasms.
T	Touch	Touch the injury site if the casualty allows. Press gently to find the site of pain and note any response.
A	Active Movement	Can the player move the limb painlessly through a full range of movement on their own?
P	Passive Movement	Ask the player to relax their limb. The first aider moves the joint through its range of motion. Pain at this point may indicate a ligament or tendon injury — seek medical advice.
S	Strength Test	Progressive function test — move against resistance. Get the player to stand, then gradually weight-bear and walk/run on the injured limb. Look for guarding (masking pain).

SALTAPS is a very popular exam question. Be able to explain each letter in your own words with what you would specifically observe or do for each step.

6. PRICE Treatment

PRICE Treatment A first aid treatment protocol used for minor injuries such as sprains and strains. Should be applied as soon as possible after a minor injury occurs.

🧠 Memory Trick P-R-I-C-E = Protection → Rest → Ice → Compression → Elevation
"Please Rest In Comfortable Elevation!" 🛏️

P – Protection

Prevent the injured area from suffering further damage. Use crutches, splints, supports, slings or braces.

R – Rest

Reduce level of physical activity so the injured area has time to settle and heal.

I – Ice

Apply ice to reduce the inflammation caused by the injury. Use a cloth between ice and skin to prevent ice burns.

C – Compression

Crepe bandages are most suited for compression. Important to limit swelling and increase circulation.

E – Elevation

Keep the injured area above the heart. Limits blood flow to the area and encourages venous return, reducing swelling.

💡 Analogy Think of PRICE like putting out a fire in a building. Protection = evacuate the area. Rest = stop fanning the flames. Ice = pour water on it. Compression = seal it off. Elevation = tilt away so it can't spread back down!

7. Concussion & The 6 R's

Concussion A mild traumatic injury to the brain. It can occur after an impact to the head or a whiplash-type injury that causes the head and brain to shake quickly back and forth. A concussion results in an altered mental state that may include becoming unconscious. Recognising concussion for younger athletes is especially important — it usually takes young people longer to recover than adults.

⚠️ Never Return to Play! Any athlete suspected of having a concussion must be removed from play immediately and must NOT return until fully cleared by a healthcare professional. "If in doubt, sit them out."

🧠 Memory Trick – The 6 R's of Concussion Recognise → Remove → Refer → Rest → Recover → Return
"Really Remove Refs, Rest, Recover Right!"

R	Step	What it means
1. Recognise	Learn the signs & symptoms	Symptoms include: dizziness, headache, confusion, nausea, memory loss, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, loss of consciousness.
2. Remove	Remove from play	If an athlete has a concussion or suspected concussion, they must be immediately removed from play.
3. Refer	Refer to healthcare professional	The athlete must be assessed by a qualified healthcare professional (doctor).
4. Rest	Rest until symptom-free	The athlete must rest until all symptoms are gone before beginning return-to-play protocols.
5. Recover	Full recovery required	Adults: minimum 2 weeks before returning to play. Children/younger athletes: minimum 3 weeks.
6. Return	Return to play (with clearance)	In rugby, the athlete must be symptom-free AND cleared to play by a healthcare professional before returning.

8. Equipment & Clothing for Injury Prevention

When attempting to stay injury free, athletes must consider three main factors: Equipment, Clothing, and Facilities.

🪖 Equipment ▶

Helmets

Minimise head and brain injuries. Used in hurling/camogie, boxing, American football, cycling, skiing, baseball.

Protective Eyewear

Sunglasses with ultraviolet filter for skiers, runners, cyclists, triathletes — protects eyes from weather conditions.

Mouthguards/Gumshields

Protect the mouth, lips, teeth and gums in contact sports. Required in GAA, boxing, hockey, rugby, squash.

Pads & Guards

Reduce impact injuries in contact sports. Used in hockey, rugby, volleyball (knee pads). E.g. shoulder pads, chest guards.

👕 Clothing ▶

Shin Pads Worn to support and protect shins and ankles, preventing injuries such as fractures and sprains. Used in soccer, hurling/camogie and hockey.

Knee, Ankle, Wrist & Thigh Supports Worn to offer additional protection to joints that may have been weakened through past injury. May help to stabilise the joint and prevent further injury.

Compression Clothing Studies show compression clothing can: prevent excessive muscle vibration, reduce fatigue, help with blood circulation, reduce risk of DOMS, and provide comfort during training. Examples: sleeves, socks, shorts, tights, underwear.

General rules: Jewellery should always be removed, hair tied back, laces tied — essential to prevent injury. Appropriate footwear (e.g. football boots with correct studs, basketball runners) helps reduce injury risk.

9. Overtraining & Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Overtraining (OTS – Overtraining Syndrome) An imbalance between training loads and recovery time. Can lead to dramatic performance decreases. Occurs when the body doesn't have sufficient rest to adapt to training demands. 40% of muscular endurance can be lost over an 8-week period when training stops — which highlights the importance of staying injury free and avoiding OTS.

Overreaching A temporary condition that occurs in response to heavy training or intense loads. Has a negative impact on the athlete and their performance levels. Common causes include quick increases in the frequency, intensity or duration of training sessions without allowing for necessary recovery time.

💡 Analogy Overtraining is like constantly revving your car engine in the red zone. Eventually something breaks — and fixing it takes far longer than if you'd just looked after it properly!

Symptoms of Overtraining Syndrome (OTS)

⚠️ Warning Signs of OTS

Decreased performance
Increased perceived effort during workouts
Excessive fatigue
Agitation and moodiness
Insomnia or restless sleep
Loss of appetite
Chronic or nagging injuries
Metabolic imbalances
Psychological stress and/or depression

Strategies to Prevent OTS

Incorporate Recovery Time: At least one rest day per week. Include a mix of easier workouts throughout the week to allow gradual recovery.
Prioritise Nutrition: Carbs for energy; protein to help muscle recovery; healthy fats to support hormone function, brain and nervous system. Supplements may also be useful.
Plan and Keep a Training Diary: Track how you feel before, during and after workouts. Record fatigue levels, sleep quality, nutrition and training load. By documenting this, athletes can identify patterns that aid or hinder performance.

RPE – Rate of Perceived Exertion A measure of intensity used to indicate how hard an athlete felt after a session. Usually used by the coach to work out the training load of a session. Training load = combination of how hard a session is (intensity) × how long the session is (time). Coaches use training load data to decide on the frequency, intensity, time and type of future sessions. If training load is not carefully monitored, athletes can become overtrained and fatigued.

💡 Analogy RPE is like the dashboard of a car — it tells the driver (coach) how hard the engine (athlete) has been working. If the dial is always in the red, something needs to change!

10. Organising a Sporting Event

When organising a sporting event, several key factors must be considered:

Term	Definition	Example
Rules	Agreed terms that govern the sport — what is allowed and not allowed.	A GAA referee enforcing the rules on a high tackle.
Roles	Determined by the sport's organisation or individual groups. Officiating and playing roles are the most common, but also include captain, vice-captain, freetaker etc.	A captain leading the team out; a designated freetaker in GAA.
Rituals	Actions carried out each time an athlete goes to perform at an event.	A team doing the same warm-up routine each match; the New Zealand All Blacks performing the Haka.
Conventions	Ways of behaving considered polite. Not written in the rules, but considered part of the sport's culture.	Coin toss at the start of a match; shaking hands/fist bumping after a match; clapping off the opposition.

Safety Considerations When Organising an Event

Athlete welfare and safety
Spectator safety
Access to the sporting facility
Dealing with emergencies (first aid provision)
Appointing appropriate stewards and officials
Is the venue easily accessible for vehicles, pedestrians, wheelchairs and people with disabilities?

Know the difference between Rules, Roles, Rituals and Conventions — examiners often ask you to distinguish between these terms and give examples from a named sport.

🧠 Chapter 3B Quick Quiz

🎽 Chapter 3C: The Role of Coach & Official

Interpersonal skills, goal-setting, reflection, the official's demands and managing conflict

1. Role of the Coach / Choreographer

The role of the coach goes far beyond providing instruction on the sideline. According to a survey by Athlete Assessments, the three biggest challenges coaches face are:

Understanding an athlete's personality (motivating them)
Maintaining a balanced personal life (work, sport, home)
Managing relationships and dynamics within the team/squad

🔑 Key Insight Two of the three biggest coaching challenges involve dealing with athletes' personalities and inter-relationships. This highlights that high-level interpersonal skills are key requirements for a successful coach.

💡 Analogy A coach is like a conductor of an orchestra — they need to understand each musician's strengths, keep the group motivated, manage conflicts, and ensure everyone plays their part at the right time. Technical knowledge of music (sport) is essential, but so is the ability to lead people!

2. Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal Skills The ability to communicate or interact well with other people. This ability is demonstrated through both verbal and non-verbal communication, and is essential to successful coaching.

👂 Active Listening

Fully concentrating on, understanding and responding to what athletes say — not just hearing the words.

🗣️ Clear Communication

Conveying instructions, feedback and information in a way that is easy to understand for the athlete.

💡 Empathy

Understanding and sharing the feelings of athletes — appreciating their perspective and emotional state.

⚡ Assertiveness

Communicating confidently and directly — stating needs and expectations clearly without being aggressive.

🤝 Conflict Resolution

Ability to identify, address and resolve disagreements or disputes between athletes in a fair way.

💪 Motivation

Inspiring athletes to give their best effort — both through encouragement and by creating a positive environment.

🔍 Modern Coaching Interpersonal skills are not the only attributes needed. Modern sport requires a broad range of qualities — sports psychology, nutrition, digital technology and tactical knowledge all bring added complexity to coaching.

3. Qualities of a Good Coach

💬 Communication ▶

Communication (Coaching) The ability to communicate effectively is a key characteristic of successful coaching. The ability to communicate with others is essential if the coach is to share ideas, provide instructions or deal with conflict. Communicating well can raise a coach's credibility, while also commanding respect and authority.

Use terminology the athlete understands
Use the correct type of feedback (KR or KP)
Check in regularly using questions
Be mindful of body language (non-verbal communication)

🔥 Motivation ▶

The coach must maintain high levels of motivation in and out of competition. This can be challenging especially months before a big competition or during off-season. Coaches must develop training plans, set goals and foster a sense of fun and competition.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation (Coaching Context) Extrinsic motivation is probably the easiest for a coach to provide (tangible and measurable). However, the coach should aim to develop intrinsic motivation in their players — the inner love of the game. Strategies include: creating a positive training environment, communicating effectively, focusing on enjoyment, being positive about performances, and using goal setting.

📅 Planning & Periodisation ▶

The coach must plan and design an appropriate periodisation plan that ensures the athlete peaks at the correct time for competition. This includes designing individual microcycles, mesocycles and macrocycles.

🔗 Links to Chapter 2B Periodisation = Macrocycle (full year) → Mesocycle (training block) → Microcycle (weekly plan)

🏆 Knowledge of Sport ▶

The coach needs to know more than just the rules — coaching knowledge ranges from planning individual sessions to implementing full periodisation plans. Coaches must understand how to:

Modify training and performance to help athletes succeed
Cater for psychological preparedness, motivation, confidence and enjoyment
Know the rules, structures and strategies of the sport
Prepare athletes psychologically and build confidence

⚠️ Important! Knowledge alone does not guarantee success. The timing of when to use knowledge and skills is key!

4. Goal Setting – Long-Term & Short-Term Goals

Goal setting is a crucial skill for both the coach and athlete. It is closely linked to motivation and psychological preparation for sport. A mixture of short- and long-term goals is key to ensuring an athlete remains motivated, engaged and focused.

Long-Term Goals The end product of all preparation and training. Give the athlete a vision of what they want to achieve over the long term. Can be difficult in nature. Must be well planned and adhere to the SMART principle, as it can be easy to lose track over a long period.

Example Long-Term Goal "Improve rowing 2k time by 15 seconds over 4 years with the aim to win an Olympic medal."

Short-Term Goals Like stepping stones towards a long-term goal. Can be completed over a short period of time and are usually less difficult. Used to maintain motivation, concentration and focus towards long-term goals. Should also follow the SMART principle and vary in type (process, performance and outcome goals).

💡 Analogy A long-term goal is the destination on Google Maps (e.g. the Olympics). Short-term goals are the individual turns and motorways you take to get there. Without the small steps, you'd never reach the destination!

🧠 SMART Reminder (Links to Chapter 2C) Specific · Measurable · Achievable · Relevant · Time-bound
Three types of goals: Outcome (win/lose), Performance (personal improvement), Process (technique focus)

You may be asked to outline ONE long-term and ONE short-term SMART goal for a named athlete. Include ALL 5 SMART criteria in your answer.

5. Guiding Athlete Reflection

If an athlete is unable to reflect on their performance effectively, they will struggle to improve and make it to the highest level. The coach has a vital role in guiding reflection — as it is a skill many people find difficult.

Reflection 'IN' Action Reflection that happens in the moment — during the activity, while thoughts can still benefit the situation. It helps with decision-making during the activity, allowing the athlete to think on their feet and make appropriate decisions. This type of reflection is difficult to develop — coaches should create scenarios in training to practice it.

🧩 Reflection 'in' Action Model 1. What happened? → 2. Can I affect it now? (Yes/No) → 3. What will I do to affect it?

💡 Analogy Reflection 'in' action is like a racing driver adjusting their steering in a corner — they're not thinking about the race after it's done, they're adapting while driving.

Reflection 'ON' Action Reflection that occurs after the activity. Requires thinking about performance or training after the event and turning this information into knowledge which can inform future performances. The coach applies methods and structure to reflection so athletes can identify what went well and how performance can be improved in the future.

🧩 Reflection 'on' Action Model 1. What happened? → 2. What did I learn? → 3. What would I do differently?

🧠 Memory Trick – Reflection 'in' vs 'on' IN = INSIDE the performance (while it's happening — live, real-time)
ON = AFTER the performance (thinking ON it later, like writing a report)

WSN Reflection Model

What?

What happened? Describe the event or performance.

So What?

So what have I learned about this? What does it mean for my performance?

Now What?

Now what could I do? What will I change or do differently next time?

The WSN model is a very exam-friendly structure for answering reflection questions. Use it to frame your answers: What → So What → Now What.

6. Role of the Official

The role of the official is often overlooked in sport, yet it is a very important one. Officials face expectation from athletes, coaches, parents and spectators — often with high levels of passion and aggression directed at them.

Common Duties of Officials (Across All Sports)

Officiating sporting events, games and competitions
Judging performances to determine a winner
Keeping track of event times and starting or stopping play when necessary
Signalling participants and other officials when infractions occur, or to regulate play
Settling claims of infractions or complaints by participants
Enforcing the rules of the game and assessing penalties when necessary

7. Demands on the Official

🏃 Personal Fitness ▶

Personal Fitness (Official) An official should be suitably fit to manage the sport they are assigned to. Many sports prioritise high levels of fitness at the top level. FIFA and World Rugby have referee fitness testing structures in place to ensure all referees meet a certain standard. GAA referees cover an average distance of 9.5km per match — similar to outfield players. Fatigue negatively impacts cognitive performance.

🧠 Psychological Readiness ▶

Psychological Readiness (Official) Psychological preparation for officiating is just as important as physical preparation. Staying calm under pressure, remaining confident and maintaining good relationships with athletes and other officials are all key. Strategies to deal with the stress and demands of sport are essential for all officials (e.g. breathing techniques, visualisation).

👔 Professionalism & Attire ▶

Professionalism (Official) It is essential that an official portrays a sense of professionalism. This means ensuring that uniform or other attire is suitable, presentable and well maintained. Any equipment required should be of a high standard. By setting and adhering to professional standards, the official can set the tone for coaches and athletes involved.

E.g. a basketball referee must ensure the ball is the correct size (size 7 basketball should weigh 22oz).

8. Communicating Assertively

Assertive Communication When communicating with players, coaches and spectators, it is essential that the official does so assertively — confidently and directly, without being aggressive. Although the official should be cordial and polite, they should keep a level of distance so as to remove any doubt of taking sides. Officials must be receptive to questions and complaints while not tolerating comments or abuse.

🧠 Memory Trick Assertive = Not Aggressive, Not Passive
Aggressive = too forceful | Passive = too weak | Assertive = just right (confident, clear, calm)

Tips for Assertive Communication

📏 Consistent Body Language

Ensure a sense of fairness and neutrality. Appropriate, consistent gestures can add emphasis.

🎙️ Controlled Tone of Voice

A level tone displays assertiveness. Don't be condescending or raise your voice unnecessarily.

📝 Choose Words Wisely

Deliver them at the right time and in the right place to maximise receptivity and impact.

👁️ Maintain Eye Contact

Shows interest and demonstrates authority. Signals you are engaged and in control.

⏱️ Timing

Judge when is best to communicate — sometimes waiting for the right moment maximises impact.

🤝 Be Accessible

Be receptive to questions and complaints while not standing for abuse. Maintain the flow of the game.

9. Managing Conflict

Because of the competitive nature of sport, some conflict is always inevitable. Managing conflict is one of the most important roles of the official. Three key factors influence how well conflict is managed:

Tone of Voice

An official should use a commanding tone and ensure they do not sound condescending to the participant.

Language Used

Both verbal and non-verbal language should be clear, respectful and appropriate to the participant (age, context).

Consistency & Respect

The official should be consistent in how they manage conflict, with each participant treated equally.

Three Sources of Conflict

⚽ Conflict with Players ▶

Conflict with Players While most players adhere to rules and demonstrate good sportsmanship, some engage in gamesmanship and blame the referee when things don't go their way. Research shows younger athletes are more likely to break rules or engage in deviant behaviour. This highlights the importance of teaching ethics and fair play in clubs and schools.

Gamesmanship Attempting to gain an advantage within the letter but not the spirit of the rules — e.g. time-wasting, feigning injury, verbal pressure on opponents.

Sportsmanship Fair and generous behaviour in sport — playing within both the rules and the spirit of the game.

🧑‍🏫 Conflict with Coaches ▶

Conflict with Coaches There is often an obvious conflict of interest between coaches and officials. Coaches care about winning; the official does not. Coaches have a bias towards their own team — when a decision doesn't go their way, it can result in accusations directed at the official. Many coaches direct verbal abuse at the official, which is a major source of conflict.

👥 Conflict with Spectators/Parents ▶

Conflict with Spectators/Parents Parents and spectators have a bias when it comes to officials. Many spectators do not have the tactical knowledge to fully understand the sport — if things don't go in favour of their team or children, the official can be blamed. Such problems have led to initiatives such as 'silent sidelines'.

Strategies for Dealing with Conflict

📋 Preparation

Meet with officiating team beforehand to outline roles. Identify potential conflict points. Anticipate conflict and develop pre-planned responses.

🌊 Being Flexible

May need to be lenient at certain points. Depends on the specific situation and emotions involved.

🧘 Staying Calm

Important not to get sucked into the tension of the game. Manage own emotions to manage conflict effectively.

😌 Recognising Emotions

Recognise others' emotions and handle reactions appropriately. Aim to take emotion out of the conversation.

Sample exam question: "Suggest three strategies an official may use to deal with a conflict situation." Use: Tone of voice + Language used + Consistency. Explain each and relate it to a specific conflict scenario.